摘要：
工程英文文献国际工程承包是指一个国家的政府部门、公司、企业或项目所有人（一般称工程业主或发包人）委托国外的工程承包人负责按规定的 条件承担完成某项工程任务。国际工程承包是一种综... 工程英文文献
国际工程承包是指一个国家的政府部门、公司、企业或项目所有人（一般称工程业主或发包人）委托国外的工程承包人负责按规定的 条件承担完成某项工程任务。国际工程承包是一种综合性的国际经济 合作方式，是国际技术贸易的一种方式，也是国际劳务合作的一种方 式。之所以将这种方式作为国际技术贸易的一种方式，是因为国际承 包工程项 目建设过程中，包含有大量的技术转让内容，特别是项目建 设的后期，承包人要培训业主的技术人员，提供所需的技术知识（专利技术、专有技术），以保证项目的正常运行。 一．工程承包合同的基本内容 招标成交的国际工程承包合同不是采取单一合同方式，而是采取另一种合同方式，这种合同是由一些有关文件组成的，通常称为合同文件（contract documents）。 合同文件包括：招标通知书、投标须知、合同条件、投标书、中标通知书和协议书等。按照国际上通用的"合同条件"，一般包括以下内容： 1．监理工程师和监理工程师代表权责条款 合同中应该规定，发包人须将其任命的监理工程师及时通知承包人，监理工程师是发包人的代理人，在监理工程师中选定监理工程师 代表负责监督工程施工和处理履约中出现的问题。 2．工程承包的转让和分包条款 合同一般规定，承包人未经发包人或其代理人同意，不得将全部合同、合同的任何部分、合同的任何利益和权益转让给第三者。经发包人或其代理人同意，承包人方可把部分工程分包给他人，但原承包人仍对全部工程负责。 3．承包人一般义务条款 根据合同规定，承包人应该负责工程项目的全部设计和施工，并无偿提供为施工所必备的劳务、材料、机器设备及管理知识。 4．特殊自然条件和人为障碍条款 工程承包合同，一般来说履行合同时间较长，在履行合同中，可能会由于特殊自然条件和人为原因给工程的施工带来困难，必须采取 一定的措施才能排除，例如，增加施工机械设备、劳动力、材料等， 这样就要增加承包费用或推迟工程进度。以上问题须经监理工程师或监理工程师的代表确认，发包人才能偿付额外增加的费用或同意工程 延期。 5．竣工和推迟竣工条款 合同中规定竣工时间和标准，工程完成后承包人经监理工程师或其代表验收无误后发给竣工证明，标志着工程项目已全部竣工。如果出现一些特殊情况，如工程变更、自然条件变化、人为障碍使工程延误，承包人经监理工程师同意，可以延长工程的竣工期限。 6．专利权和专有技术条款 承包人或分包人须向发包人提供专利和专有技术，并承担被第三方控告合同范围内专利权为非法、以及专利权被第三方侵犯时的责任； 承包人提供的专有技术，双方应订立保密条款。 7．维修条款 合同中的维修条款是说明维修期限和维修费用的负担问题。维修期限一般是从竣工证书签发之日起计算，一般土木工程维修期为十二 个月。在维修期内，承包人应按监理工程师的要求，对工程缺陷进行维修、返工或弥补等。如果工程的缺陷是由于承包人的疏忽造成，由承包人负担由此而引起的费用。如果由于其他原因造成，由发包人负担费用。 8．工程变更条款 合同签订后，发包人或监理工程师有权改变合同中规定的工程项 目，承包人应按变更后的工程项目要求进行施工。因工程变更增加或减少的费用，应在合同的总价中予以调整，工期也要相应改变。 9．支付条款 支付条款一般规定在合同条件的"特殊条件"之中，主要包括： （1）预付款：工程开工前，发包人应按合同规定支付给承包人一部分预付款，预付款金额一般是合同总价的5-15％以便承包人购置机械设备和采购材料等。 （2）临时结算：发包人每月向承包人支付一次，发包人每月支付的金额应扣除承包人的保留金，保留金通常是每月支付金额的5- 10％左右，但保留金的累计金额达到合同总价款的5％时，就不再扣留，承包人交付的保留金应在工程竣工和维修期满后全部退还给承包人。 （3）支付期限：一般规定，在监理工程师签发给结算单之日起 十五至三十天以内，发包人要向承包人付清费用。 （4）迟付加息：如果发包人不按规定付款，应按工程项目所在国中央银行放款利率加息。 后结算证书之日起三十天内，发包人付清全部价款。 10 ．违约惩罚条款 合同项下的双方当事人在履行合同过程中，可能会出现违约的行为，针对各方违约的情况，分别订立违约惩罚条款。 （1）对承包人违约的惩罚：承包人凡是未经发包人书面同意而 转让和分包承包工程；承包人凡是无正当理由不按时开工；承包人未按合同规定标准准备材料；承包人不听从监理工程师的正当警告；承包人忽视工程质量等，均属承包人的违约行为。对此，发包人有权终止合同，没收承包人的履约保证金或者采取其他必要的惩罚措施。 （2）对发包人违约的惩罚。 凡是以下情况即构成发包人违约：未向承包人按时支付费用；干扰、阻碍或拒绝向承包人签发付款证明；无正当理由中途决定停工，故意制造事端，挑剔和责难承包人等等。 对于发包人的违约行为承包人有权终止合同，发包人须赔偿承包人因准备开工或施工中所有费用的支出和机器设备折旧费用，运输费用等。 除上述合同条款外，还要订立仲裁条款，特殊风险条款等。 二．工程承包合同的招标方式 招标（Tender, Invitation to invite tender） 是一方（招标人）欲出售、购买商品，或欲建设工程项目按一定程序征求应征人， 不经磋商而进行交易的一种方法。应征人按招标人的要求提出具体方案并寄交招标人称为投标（to submit tender 或 submission of tender）国际竞争性招标的程序大致分为如下几个阶段： 1．招标前的准备工作。（1）项目招标委员会的组成。招标委员会应由国家主管部门组织，聘请工程、商务、外汇、法 律等各有关方面的专家组成，负责解决项目招标中所遇到的各种问题， 并具体指导招标工作。（2）招标公告。在进行招标前，应在国内外有影响的报刊上发布招标公告。它包括招标通知和招标广告两个部分。招标通知是指分别送给与项目有关的与所在国建立了外交和商务关系的各国有关部门的书面通知。招标广告是指在国内外有影响的报刊上所刊登的招标广告。 通知和广告的内容应包括：项目名称、项目地点、项目内容概况 、工程范围、索取招标文件的日期、地址及截止日期、招标条件、价 格以及有关事项的咨询单位等。（3）资格预审。资格预审是指对愿意承担招标项目的投标人进行的财务状况、技术能力、资信等方面的预先审查。目的是选择确有承包能力的投标人。（4）制定标底。招标委员会刊登招标广告后，即应准备合同价格，通过项目概算,确定合同的价格水平，亦称为"标底"，是招标委员会掌握的底牌，是绝对保密的。 2．公开招标。公开招标是指招标委员会通知取得投标资格的投标人或刊登广告知悉投标人索取或购买招标文件，邀请其前来投标的招标环节。 3．开标。开标是指招标委员会在规定的日期、时间和地点，将截止日期前 收到的全部投标文件，在所有投标人或其代表在场的情况下，当场拆封投标文件，并公开宣读各投标人的投标条件，以使全体投标人了解各家的标价，这种程序即为开标。 4．评标与决标。开标以后即转入评标阶段。招标委员会将投标文件的标价，及其它条件一一汇集列表，选取其中报价最低的四、五份投标文件，进行 审查、鉴别、比较，直至决定中标单位，这一阶段，是在秘密条件下进行的。决标是根据评标报告及其推荐意见为依据，由招标委员会决定中 标人，同时向中标人发出中标通知书的环节，对未中标的人一般可不通知，或只简单通知××承包人中标即可。 5．签订合同。中标人在接到正式的"中标通知书"后，即应在规定的时间内与工程业主签订工程承包合同。合同先由一方起草，并在该草稿基础上进行磋商，达成一致谅解后签订。 International engineering contracting refers to a country's government departments, companies, enterprises or project owner (usually the owner or contract, said one project) commissioned by the contractor in charge of foreign projects in accordance with the conditions provided for the completion of a project to assume the task. International project is a comprehensive international economic cooperation, international technology trade is a form of international labor service cooperation with a way. The reason why this approach as an international technology trade a way, because of international contracted projects Head construction, contains a large number of technology transfer, in particular towards the end of project construction, contractor owners to train technical staff to provide the necessary technical know-how (patents, proprietary technology) to ensure the normal operation of the project . 1. Engineering the basic elements of contract International engineering contract tendering contracts rather than the adoption of a single contract, but another contract, this contract is formed by a number of relevant documents, and often referred to as the contract documents (contract documents). Contract documents, including: tender notices, tender information, contract conditions, bids, notices and agreements such as the successful bidder. In accordance with internationally, "the terms of the contract" generally include the following: 1. Supervision engineers and representatives of the powers and responsibilities of the terms of supervision engineer The contract should provide that the contract of their appointment shall promptly notify the contractor supervision engineers, supervision engineers contracting agent of the person, in the supervision engineer in selected representatives of supervision engineer is responsible for overseeing construction and dealing with performance problems. 2. The transfer of project contracting and subcontracting provisions General provisions of the contract, the contractor without a contract or their agents may not be all of the contract, the contract any part of any contract transferred to the interests and rights of a third party. By the contract or their agents, contractors, part of the project to be subcontracted to others, but the original contractor is still responsible for all projects. 3. Obligations under the terms of the general contractor According to the contract, the contractor should be responsible for all project design and construction, and provided free of charge necessary for the construction labor, materials, machinery and equipment and management know-how. 4. The special natural conditions and terms of man-made obstacles Project contracts, in general a longer time to perform the contract, in the performance of the contract, may be due to the special natural conditions and man-made reasons for the difficulty of project, certain measures must be taken to rule out the possibility, for example, increase in construction machinery and equipment, labor, materials, etc., so that the contractor is necessary to increase the cost or delay the progress of the project. Subject to the supervision over the issue of engineers or engineers on behalf of the Commissioner confirmed that the contract be able to pay additional fees or agree to an extension project. 5. Completion of the terms and delays in the completion of Completion time stipulated in the contract and standards, the contractor after the completion of works by the supervision engineer or his representative issued after the completion of acceptance to prove correct, marked the completion of the project have been. If there are some special circumstances, such as engineering changes, changes in natural conditions, man-made obstacles delayed the project, the contractor agreed to by the supervision engineer, you can extend the deadline for completion. 6. Terms of patents and know-how Contractor or subcontractor to the contract to provide patent and proprietary technology, and assume by contract the scope of third-party patent rights against an illegal, as well as patent infringement by a third party liability; contractor to provide proprietary technology, Both sides should enter into the terms of confidentiality. 7. Maintenance provisions of Terms of the contract maintenance period is to repair and maintenance costs of the burden. Maintenance period is generally the completion certificate was issued from the date of the general civil engineering for the twelve-month maintenance period. In the maintenance period, the contractor should be the requirements of supervision engineer, the engineering maintenance defects, rework or make up for such. If the project is due to the defects caused by the negligence of the contractor by the contractor the burden of the resulting costs. If as a result of other causes, from contract to bear the cost. 8. Terms of engineering change After the signing of the contract, contract supervision engineer or the right to change the provisions of the contract projects, contractors should be to change the requirements after the project construction. Changes due to increase or decrease in the cost of the contract price should be adjusted accordingly to change the period. 9. Terms of payment Terms of payment in terms of the contract the general provisions of the "special conditions" are, including: (1) advances: the project started before the contract according to the terms of the contract as part of the advance paid to the contractor, the amount of the advance is generally 5-15% of the total contract price to the contractor to purchase machinery and equipment and procurement of materials. (2) The provisional outturn: monthly contract payments to the contractor once the contract the amount of monthly payment should be deducted from contractor's retention, the retention money is usually paid a monthly amount of 5 - 10%, but retention of the cumulative total contract price amounted to 5%, it would no longer be detained, the contractor should be referred to the retention and maintenance of construction works had been completed after the expiration of all returned to the contractor. (3) the payment period: a general rule, the supervising engineers statements issued to date within 15-30 days, contracts were paid to the contractor. (4) late payment interest rates: If the contract is not required to pay the project host country should be the central bank lending rate hike. After the settlement 30 days from the date of the certificate, the contract price were paid in full. 10. Breach of contract penalty clauses Under the contract by both parties in the course of performance of the contract, there may be a breach of conduct, in view of the parties to the case of breach of contract, breach of contract penalty clauses were made. (1) breach of contract on the contractor penalties: Any contractor who, without the written consent of contract and the transfer and sub-contracted projects; contractor any justification does not start on time; contractor did not prepare the contract standard materials; contractor does not listen to the legitimate warning supervision engineer; contractor to ignore the quality of the project are the contractor's default. In this regard, the contract is entitled to terminate the contract, forfeiture of the contractor's performance bond, or take other punitive measures necessary. (2) penalties for breach of contract award. All the following persons will constitute a breach of contract: the contractor is notFor reference
英文文献最好是到谷歌，百度也可以，把你要找的内容的关键词键入搜索就可以了，比如土木工程，就输civil engineering，但这个词汇的范围太宽泛，最好增加范围窄一点的关键词。一般注明PDF文件的可直接下载，不要付费。
土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直译是民用工程，它是建造各种工程的统称。它既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。土木工程共有六个专业：建筑学，城市规划，土木工程，建筑环境与设备工程，给水排水工程和道路桥梁工程。土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。土木工程为国民经济的发展和人民生活的改善提供了重要的物质技术基础，对众多产业的振兴发挥了促进作用，工程建设是形成固定资产的基本生产过程，因此，建筑业和房地产成为许多国家和地区的经济支柱之一。.古代的土木工程有很长的时间跨度，大致从公元前500年新石器时代出现原始的土木工程活动到16世纪末意大利的文艺复兴，导致土木工程走上迅速发展的道路为止，前后经历了两千多年。在这段时间内，由于科学理论发展及其缓慢，土木工程也没有突破习惯的发展。从17世纪中页开始到20 世纪40年代第二次世界大战结束为止的300年间，国外的建筑取得了长足的进步。土木工程进入了定量分析阶段。一些理论的发展，新材料的出现，新工具的发明，都使土木工程科学日渐完善和成熟。到了近代，二战结束之后，许多国家经济起飞，现代科学日益进步，从而为进一步发展提供了强大的动力和物质基础。人们生活水平的不断提高，必然要求越来越舒适的居住环境，在这种情况下，建筑的发展直接推动了土木工程的发展。总的来说土木工程是一门古老的学科，它已经取得了巨大的成就，未来的土木工程将在人们的生活中占据更重要的地位。地球环境的日益恶化，人口的不断增加，人们为了争取生存，为了争取更舒适的生存环境，必将更加重视土木工程。在不久的将来，一些重大项目将会陆续兴建，插入云霄的摩天大楼，横跨大样的桥梁，更加方便的交通将不是梦想。科技的发展，以及地球不断恶化的环境必将促使土木工程向太空和海洋发展，为人类提供更广阔的生存空间。近年来，工程材料主要是钢筋，混凝土，木材和砖材，在未来，传统材料将得到改观，一些全新的更加适合建筑的材料将问世，尤其是化学合成材料将推动建筑走向更高点。同时，设计方法的精确化，设计工作的自动化，信息和智能话技术的全面引入，将会是人们有一个更加舒适的居住环境。一句话，理论的发展，新材料的出现，计算机的应用，高新技术的引入等都将使土木工程有一个新的飞跃.English is the Civil Engineering Civil Engineering, civil engineering is literally, it is the construction of the project collectively. It means building objects that the construction on the ground, underground, water works facilities, equipment and materials to use in surveying, design construction, maintenance, repair and other professional skills. Civil Engineering with the progress of the human society, has been transformed into large integrated disciplines, it has a number of branches, such as : construction, rail projects, road projects, bridge projects, special project structure, water drainage works, the port project, water, environmental engineering disciplines. A total of six professional Civil Engineering : architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, construction and environmental engineering equipment, water drainage works and road bridge project.Civil Engineering as an important foundation subjects, its important attribute : an integrated, social, practicality, uniformity. Civil Engineering for the development of the national economy and improve the living standards of the people provided important material and technological foundation for the revitalization of many industries played a catalytic role in the construction of fixed assets is a basic production process, the construction and real estate in many countries and regions become a pillar of the economyAncient Civil Engineering has a long time span, roughly 500 years before Christ from the original date in civil engineering activities to the 16 century Italian Renaissance, resulting in the rapid development of the Civil Engineering on the road today, and has experienced more than 2,000 years. During this period, due to the development of scientific theories and slow, there is no breakthrough in civil engineering practices.Century from 17 pages to 40 years in the 20th century end of the Second World War 300 years, foreign construction made great strides. Civil Engineering has entered a phase of quantitative analysis. Some theoretical development, the emergence of new materials, new tools of invention, the Civil Engineering Science is perfection and maturity. In modern times, after the end of World War II, many countries economic takeoff, the increasing advances of modern science, so as to provide a powerful impetus to further development and material basis. People's living conditions continue to improve, more and more comfortable living environment for the inevitable in the circumstances, the construction of development directly to the Civil Engineering development.
机械工程英文文献
中国是世界上机械发展最早的国家之一。中国的机械工程技术不但历史悠久，而且成就十分辉煌，不仅对中国的物质文化和社会经济的发展起到了重要的促进作用，而且对世界技术文明的进步做出了重大贡献.传统机械方面，我国在很长一段时期内都领先于世界。到了近代由于特别是从18世纪初到19世纪40年代，由于经济社会等诸多原因，我国的机械行业发展停滞不前，在这100多年的时间里正是西方资产阶级政治革命和产业革命时期，机械科学技术飞速发展，远远超过了中国的水平。这样，中国机械的发展水平与西方的差距急剧拉大，到十九世纪中期已经落后西方一百多年。新中国建立后特别是近三十年来，我国的机械科学技术发展速度很快。向机械产品大型化，精密化、自动化和成套化的趋势发展。在有些方面已经达到或超过了世界先进水平。总的来说，就目前而言中国机械科学技术的成就是巨大的，发展速度之快，水平之高也是前所未有的。这一时期还没有结束，我国的机械科学技术还将向更高的水平发展。只要我们能够采取正确的方针、政策、用好科技发展规律并勇于创新，我国的机械工业和机械科技一定能够振兴，重新引领世界机械工业发展潮流。就小型夯实机械而言：上世纪60年代以前，我国小型夯实机械非常缺乏，很多小型场地的夯实基本上采用人工夯实。上世纪60年代初期，长沙建设机械研究所与北京建筑工程学院等单位合作，在群众性技术革新成果的基础上总结发明了具有中国特色的蛙式夯实机，1962年获国家科技发明奖。蛙式夯实机结构简单，维修、使用方便，很快成为我国60年代夯实机械的主导产品。据不完全统计蛙式夯实机累计产量达到50000多台，在我国经济建设中发挥了重要作用。70年代以后，蛙式夯实机逐渐被性能更先进的振动冲击夯和振动平板夯所替代，目前蛙式夯实机已经很少，基本被淘汰。1964年，长沙建设机械研究所开发了HB120型内燃式夯实机，开始由上海工程机械厂生产，后来主要由津市洞庭工程机械厂生产，年产量200台左右。80年代，内燃式夯实机产品质量有较大提高，曾出口东南亚和非洲地区。90年代以后，内燃式夯实机产销售量也在逐渐减少，目前只有少数小型民营企业生产。1977年，长沙建设机械研究所和柳州市建筑机械厂开发了我国第一台HZR250型和HZR70型振动平板夯，这两种产品分别于1979 年和1982年通过了由建设部组织的鉴定。随后义乌建筑机械厂、四平建筑机械厂、安阳振动器厂、津市洞庭工程机械厂等多家企业都开始生产振动平板夯。1986年长沙建设机械研究所又开发了较大的HZR450型振动平板夯。上世纪90年代以后，振动平板夯在我国有了较快的发展，产品品种、规格和生产企业增多，国外的振动平板夯陆续进入中国市场。1983年，长沙建设机械研究所和湖北振动器厂联合开发了我国第一台HZR70型振动冲击夯，1984年通过了由建设部组织的鉴定，1985年获建设部科技进步三等奖。由于振动冲击夯具有压实效果好、生产率高、体积和重量小、轻便灵活等突出特点，深受用户欢迎，得到了迅速的推广使用，并很快发展到资江机器厂、新乡第三机床厂和津市洞庭工程机械厂等几十家企业生产。振动冲击夯虽然比振动平板夯开发晚，但发展速度、产销量和使用广泛性比振动平板夯大得多，目前已成为我国夯实机械中产销量最大的主导产品。上世纪90年代以后，国外的振动平板夯陆续进入中国市场。振动冲击夯和振动平板夯在我国的成功开发，不仅为我国建设施工部门提供了性能先进的夯实机械，取得了良好的经济效益和社会效益，而且使我国夯实机械技术向前跨进了一大步，缩短了与世界先进水平的差距，促进了我国压实机械的发展。就机械加工而言：热加工 铸造 据考古发现，在北京平谷、昌平、房山等处曾出土了公元前16世纪(商代)的青铜礼器。 明永乐年间(1403～1424年)，北京制造出享誉世界的明永乐大铜钟(46.5吨)和钟楼大铜钟(63吨)及铁钟(25吨)，采用分炉熔化、地坑造型和陶范法铸造。 20世纪50年代以前，北京在铸造上采用粘土砂手工造型。1955年，北京第一机床厂开始采用漏模造型、双面模型型板及铁型板和标准砂箱造型。1965年，开始采用塑料模型。 1980 年，北京市机电研究院与北京玛钢厂研制成功工频无芯塞杆底注式保温浇注电炉。1982年，该院与北京机床铸造二厂研究成功冲天炉风口吹氧技术。 1985～1988年，北京机床研究所试验成功浮动端面密封环的压力铸造工艺。 锻压 1959年，北京第二通用机械厂(后改名北京重型机器厂)建成2500吨水压机。1971年，该厂制造出6000吨水压机，这是当时北京最大的锻压设备。 1968～1979年，北京起重机器厂先后采用300吨油压机和2000吨油压机制造出起重机吊臂和大型覆盖件。 80年代，北京市机电研究院和北京市模具中心研制出一系列高精度多工位冲裁模具，接近或达到进口模具水平，改变了北京精密冲裁模具依赖进口的局面。 热处理 1949年前，北京已采用电炉、盐溶炉、热电偶等手段进行零件退火、回火、淬火、正火、调质、渗碳等热处理。 1956年，北京第一机床厂开始采用高频感应淬火。1961年，北京第二机床厂开始采用气体氮化淬火。1969年，北京量具刃具厂开始采用光亮淬火。 1978年，北京机床研究所研究完成机床导轨表面接触淬火工艺及设备、淬火质量检查技术条件的研究。1979年，铁道科学研究院和中国科学院力学研究所等合作完成大功率柴油机缸套表面的激光改性处理的研究。 1979年，北京市机电研究院研制成功千瓦级二氧化碳激光器，并于80年代初分别应用于汽缸套和邮票印刷设备的激光热处理。其中，清华大学、北京市机电研究院、北京邮票厂共同完成邮票厂七色机打孔器表面激光强化研究。 1984～1990年，北京市热处理研究所研究成功真空热处理、气体渗碳微机控制技术(与北京航空航天大学合作)、稀土软氮化、粉末冶金制品表面强化、煤油加甲醇小滴量法微机可控渗碳、固体渗硼、渗碳过程微机辅助工艺设计及跟踪控制系统等热处理新技术，并应用于生产。 焊接与切割 1949年，北京已有气焊、电弧焊及氧乙炔火焰切割等手工作业。 1963年，北京金属结构厂与一机部机械科学研究院合作开发出钨极氩弧焊，并实现了氮气等离子切割不锈钢。1964年，用直流钨极氩弧焊及焊丝合金化技术解决了核工业用倾斜式电解糟纯镍焊接。 1966年，北京金属结构厂开发出了使被焊球体旋转的埋弧自动焊。1968年，该厂开始以液化石油气代替乙炔切割。 80年代初，清华大学发明了新型MIG焊接电弧控制法，在控制电弧技术上取得突破。 80年代初，北京城建设计院等完成液化石油气移动式气压焊轨技术的研究和应用。 1990年，北京金属结构厂开始采用数控精密切割和具有光电跟踪及数控寻踪读入自动编程的大功率等离子切割技术。可见，我国机械发展在近代发展其迅速。China is the world's first national machinery development. Chinese mechanical engineering technology not only has a long history and splendid achievements in Chinese is not only the material culture and social economic development plays an important role in the world, and to promote the progress of civilization, technology has made great contribution to Chinese traditional machine. And in a long period ahead in the world. In modern times, especially from the early 18th century, due to the nineteen forties, due to the economic and social reasons, such as the China machinery industry, stagnation, in the 100 years is western bourgeois political revolution and industrial revolution, mechanical science and technology is developing rapidly, and far more than the level of China. So, China mechanical development level and the western gap widens, sharply to the 19th century middle behind western one hundred years.After the founding of new China, especially in the past 30 years, our country's mechanical science and technology development speed. To the mechanical product large-scale, precision, automation and discusses the trend of development. In some aspects has reached or exceeded the world advanced level. Generally speaking, currently China mechanical science and technology achievement is huge, developing fast, high level of unprecedented. In this period, China has no end of mechanical science and technology will develop to a higher level. As long as we can adopt the correct policy, with good technology development and innovation, our machinery industry and mechanical technology can revitalize, leading to the development trend of mechanical industry.Just small ramming machinery:In the 1960s, China mechanical very small tamp lack, many small venues ramming basically USES artificial ramming.Early 1960s, changsha construction machinery institute and Beijing architectural engineering institute, etc., the technical innovation achievements in mass on the basis of summing up Chinese characteristic invented the breaststroke ramming machine, 1962 exceeded national science and technology. The breaststroke ramming machine structure is simple, easy to use and maintenance in 1960s, soon became the dominant products to consolidate machinery. According to not complete count breaststroke tamp cumulative yield reached more than 50,000 machine, in the economic development of our country has played an important role. Since 1970's, the breaststroke ramming machine was gradually more advanced performance of vibration shock ram and vibrating plate ram, now replaced by laying machine has rarely breaststroke, basically be eliminated.In 1964, changsha construction machinery institute HB120 developed movable type, type of Shanghai began laying machine, engineering machine production mainly by tianjin municipal later, annual production engineering machinery dongting about 200. In the 1980s, movable type ramming machine product quality has increased greatly, have exported to southeast Asia and Africa. Since 1990s, internal-combustion type ramming machine production sales, and gradually decreased in only a few small private enterprise production.In 1977, changsha construction machinery factory buildings and developed in liuzhou HZR250 type and the HZR70 type vibrating plate ram, these two kinds of products in 1979 and 1982 passed by the ministry of construction of the organization. Then yiwu building construction machinery factory, siping, anyang vibrators factory, tianjin municipal engineering machinery dongting and other enterprises have started producing vibrating plate ram. In 1986, changsha construction machinery research and develop a larger HZR450 type of vibrating plate ram. Since 1990s, vibrating plate ram in our country has developed very quickly, varieties of products, specifications and increase production enterprises, foreign vibrating plate ram gradually to enter the Chinese market.In 1983, changsha construction machinery institute and the joint development of hubei vibration in the first HZR70 type vibration shock ramming, 1984, passed by the ministry of construction, organization construction technology progress in 1985 won prizes. Due to the vibration impact compaction result has good ramming, productivity, high volume and weight of small, lightweight flexible outstanding characteristics, deeply user etc, obtained a rapid promotion, and soon ZiJiang development to the factory, xinxiang municipal engineering machine tool plant and tianjin dozens of dongting production factory etc. Vibration shock ramming although than vibrating plate ram, but later development speed of development, production and use of extensive than vibrating plate ram, has become the largest in China in the ramming machinery products. Since 1990s, foreign vibrating plate ram gradually to enter the Chinese market.Vibration shock ramming and vibrating plate ram the successful development in our country, not only for our construction department provides advanced performance of mechanical, laying have achieved good economic benefit and social benefit, and make our ramming mechanical technology into a big step forward, shorten the gap with the advanced world level, promoting the development of compaction machine.The mechanical processing:According to the archaeological discovery, hot-working casting in Beijing pinggu, changping and so have proved that the 16th century BC shang dynasty (bronze objects. Ming yongle (1403-1424 years), Beijing produce world-renowned Ming yongle great 3-ton bell made (46.5 tons) and tower (63 tons of great 3-ton bell made of iron clock (25) and the furnace of melting, pit TaoFan model and method of casting. In the 1950s, Beijing based on clay sand castings in manual. In 1955, Beijing first machine tool plant began using leakage mould modelling, double-sided model and iron plate type plate and standard sand box modelling. In 1965, start using plastic model. In 1980, the institute and Beijing municipal electrical factory has successfully developed line frequency coreless bathroom plug stem bottom note type electric insulation casting. In 1982, hospital and Beijing the casting machine research cupola tuyere oxygen blowing technology. 1985-1988, Beijing institute of machine of floating end face seal ring by die successful test pressure casting process.In 1959, Beijing second metalforming machinery general factory changed (Beijing) built 2500 ton heavy-duty hydraulic press. In 1971, the factory produced 6,000 tons, which is then Beijing hydrtesting biggest metalforming equipment. 1968-1979, Beijing hoisting machine factory has 300 tons of using hydraulic press 2000 tons and create crane and large panel. In the 1980s, Beijing institute of electrical and developed a series of Beijing mould centre high-precision cutting die, the multistage close to or to import mould level, changed Beijing precision punching moulds dependence on imports.Before 1949, Beijing has heat treatment furnace, salt dissolved by thermocouples means furnace, quenching and tempering, parts of annealing, normalizing, quenching and tempering, carburizing and etc. In 1956, Beijing first began using high-frequency quenching machine tool plant. In 1961, the Beijing second machine tool plant began using gas nitriding quenching. In 1969, the following enterprise by Beijing gage start light quenching. In 1978, the complete machine tool research institute of Beijing guide surface contact quenching process and equipment, quenching condition of quality inspection. In 1979, scientific research institute of China academy of railway and mechanical institute of high-power diesel engine cylinder collaboration of surface modification of laser. In 1979, Beijing institute of electrical carbon dioxide laser is developed, and the kilowatt in early 1980s respectively applied in cylinder and stamp printing equipments of laser treatment. Among them, tsinghua university, Beijing, Beijing institute of electrical YouPiaoChang jointly completed YouPiaoChang seven color machine DaKongQi laser surface strengthening research. From 1984 to 1990, Beijing institute of vacuum heat treatment research, gas carburizing microcomputer control technology (Beijing university of aeronautics &astronautics and cooperation), rare earth soft nitriding, powder metallurgy products surface strengthening, kerosene and methanol small drops of microcomputer control method of carburizing, solid boriding and carburizing process computer aided process planning and tracking control system, and the application of new technology heat in production. Welding and cutting in 1949, Beijing has geo-drilling, electric welding and cutting etc oxyacetylene flame manual operation. In 1963, Beijing metal structure and YiJiBu mechanical science research cooperation to develop tungsten argon arc welding, and realize the nitrogen plasma cutting stainless steel. In 1964, the use of dc argon arc welding and tungsten wire alloying technology solved by tilting electrolysis industry worse pure nickel welding. In 1966, Beijing metal structure factory developed by rotating sphere of the submerged arc welding automatic welding. In 1968, the plant began to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) instead of acetylene cutting. In the early 1980s, tsinghua university invented new MIG welding arc arc technology in control, control a breakthrough. In the early 1980s, the Beijing urban construction design completed liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) mobile pneumatic rail welding technology research and application. In 1990, Beijing metal structure factory to adopt CNC precision cutting and with photo-electricity tracking and CNC pursuit of high input automatic programming technology plasma cutting.Visible, China mechanical development in modern development of its rapid.
电火花加工通常是在一种电解质液体中进行，是通过浸泡在电解液中的工件与电极产生电火花的发热过程把金属材料烧掉，火花形成局部的离子腔，温度高达1000摄氏度以上，使火花处的材料熔化，脱落，使用电解液是为了确保加工过程的稳定性和高效率，因为液体起冷媒作用，能够把材料烧掉，同时把烧掉的碎屑冲走，因此，电解液在材料切削过程中起着重要作用，电火花加工是一种非常有用的机加工方式，在异形工件和高硬度材料的机加工方面有很大优势，如；注塑模具，钣金冲模，硬质合金材料，和工程材料加工，现在，电火花加工被广泛采用，尽管在工业中的广泛采用，它还是有不足之处，最大问题之一是导致环境污染，因为它会产生电解液废料，这些东西危害极大，我们绝不能让它们进入周边环境，另一方面，因为电解液的成分主要是煤油，在加工过程中会分解出有害气体，危害操作人员的健康，出于环保的考虑，无污染的绿色电火花加工方法成为了近期世界范围内的热门科研课题，1997 kunieda 提出以汽油取代煤油为冷媒的新的电火花加工方法，可以降低污染，这种新方法一出现，令世界震惊，方法虽好，但有不足之处，致命弱点是稳定性差，碎屑的清洗效率低，为了克服以汽油为冷媒的缺点，该文献阐述了以汽油为冷媒，用超声波振动的电火花加工方法，
电火花加工( EDM )普遍进行了液体介质. 它是一种热过程中材料去除连续放电之间发生的一个电极 工件神色介质流体. 每放电ionizes局部血浆运河,那里温度变得非常高(高达1000◦三) 领导与融合沸腾金属既面临材料[1] . 利用液态一直被视为必不可少的稳定性和效率的过程中, 因为它是已知的液体作为冷却介质中的放电间隙和拆除并冲水 加工出碎片的工作差距. 因此,它扮演的一个最重要作用的材料去除机理. 电火花,是一个有益的加工方法. 它具有很大的优势,在加工工件形状特殊或难加工材料,如塑料模具, 冲模,硬质合金材料和工程材料〔2,3〕. 现在它已广泛应用于制造工程. 尽管他们广泛使用在工业今天,电火花有一些缺点. 其中最严重的缺点是,它可能会导致环境的污染[4] . 据悉,电火花可产生废弃物介质液体,它是非常有害的, 我们应该尽量避免让融入周围的环境. 在另一方面,液体介质一般煤油为基础油, 它会分解并释放有害气( CO和CH4 )在电火花 这将会伤害到健康的运营. 环保原因 绿法电火花未经污染已成为一个热门研究课题,在最近字. 电火花天然气是一种新的加工方法是由邦枝在1997年[5] . 在该方法中,电火花加工是实现天然气代替煤油基础油,使污染降低. 在这种新方法的出现,全世界感到震惊. 把它当作一个最重要的方法具有良好的前景. 但是这种方法有一个致命的弱点,缺乏稳定及低材料去除率( MRR值) . 为克服人手不足的电火花加工气,一种新的方法,超声波振动电火花加工( uedm )在天然气, 在此基础上开发. （用翻译软件）
软件需求工程英文文献
这些中文参考文献TheseChinesereferencesreferencesn.参考(reference的名词复数);证明书;（为方便查询所用的）标记;（帮助或意见的）征求形近词：interferencesdifferencescircumferencespreferencesinferences双语例句ThedateofthedocumentcanbededucedfromreferencestotheCivilWar.这份文件的日期可以从其中多次提到内战之处进行推断。
看来你是要发外文的论文。
解决办法：
每一篇都去知网上下载，有些高质量的的文章最后是有英文的题目、摘要和作者的。
比如你第三篇，王海斗的，就附了英文题目和人名。
那些低档的，没有英文内容的，比如，第一篇参考文献；只能通过自己的专业知识、专业词汇，自行翻译了。
清北医学翻译有双语专家，过硬的学术背景，找他们肯定行。
软件开发论文参考文献（汇总）
你知道软件开发论文参考文献有哪些吗?下面是我为大家收集的关于软件开发论文参考文献，欢迎大家阅读借鉴!
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土木工程英文文献3000字
刚好我也在做毕业设计 把我的给你用吧！ Traditional Construction ProceduresAs mentioned before, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by contractors. While they would like to satisfy the owner and the building designers, contractors have the main objective of making a profit. Hence, their initial task is to prepare a bid price based on an accurate estimate of construction costs. This requires development of a concept for performance of the work and a construction time schedule. After a contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for construction. The owner compensates the contractors for construction costs and general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a building. The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work of the various trades required for construction. For example, a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, and an elevator contractor installs elevators. Their contracts are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general , in addition to a general contractor, the owner contracts separately with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform a substantial amount of the work require for a building. Such contractors are called prime contractors. Their work is scheduled and coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid directly by the also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract to an organization for both the design and construction of a building. Such organizations are called design-build contractors. One variation of this type of contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise apartment buildings. The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the of the construction procedure often is difficult. Consequently, some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction manager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a fee. The construction manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct the building. Managers usually also supervise selection of subcontractors. During construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on schedule. In some cases, instead, the owner may prefer o engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating both design and contractors employ labor that may or may not be unionized. Unionized craftspeople are members of unions that are organized by construction trades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions, Union members will perform only the work assigned to their construction, all work should be inspected. For this purpose, the owner, often through the architect and consultants, engages inspectors. The field inspectors may be placed under the control of an owner’s representative, who may be titled clerk of the works, architect’s superintendent, engineer’s superintendent, or resident engineer. The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe conditions. Such inspections may be made at frequent addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmental agencies. They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance with the contract documents. Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain stages of construction. One agency that will make frequent inspections is the local or state building department, whichever has jurisdiction. The purpose of these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building is a description of the basic traditional construction procedure for a multistory the award of a construction contract to a general contractor, the owner may ask the contractor to start a portion of the work before signing of the contract by giving the contractor a letter of intent or after signing of the contract by issuing a written notice to proceed. The contractor then obtains construction permits, as required, form governmental agencies, such as the local building, water, sewer, and highway general contractor plans and schedules construction operations in detail and mobilizes equipment and personnel for the project. Subcontractors are notified of the contract award and issued letters of intent or awarded subcontracts, then are given, at appropriate times, notices to construction starts, the general contractor orders a survey to be made of adjacent structures and terrain, both for the record and to become knowledgeable of local conditions. A survey is then made to lay out offices for the contractor are erected on or near the site. If desirable for safety reasons to protect passersby, the required to be removed from the site are demolished and the debris is carted , the site is prepared to receive the building. This work may involve grading the top surface to bring it to the proper elevations, excavating to required depths for basement and foundations, and shifting of utility piping. For deep excavations, earth sides are braced and the bottom is construction starts with the placement of foundations, on which the building rests. This is followed by the erection of load-bearing walls and structural framing. Depending on the height of the building, ladders, stairs, or elevators may be installed to enable construction personnel to travel from floor to floor eventually to the roof. Also, hoists may be installed to lift materials to upper levels. If needed, temporary flooring may be placed for use of the building rises, pipes, ducts, and electric conduit and wiring are installed. Then, permanent floors, exterior walls, and windows are constructed. At the appropriate time, permanent elevators are installed. If required, fireproofing is placed for steel framing. Next, fixed partitions are built and the roof and its covering are put is place,Finishing operations follow. There include installation of the following: ceilings; tile; wallboard; wall paneling; plumbing fixtures; heating furnaces; air-conditioning equipment; heating and cooling devices for rooms; escalators; floor coverings; window glass; movable partitions; doors; finishing hardware; electrical equipment and apparatus, including lighting fixtures, switches, transformers, and controls; and other items called for in the drawings and specifications. Field offices, fences, bridges, and other temporary construction must be removed from the site. Utilities, such as gas, electricity, and water, are hooked up to the building. The sit is landscaped and paved. Finally, the building interior is painted and owner’s representatives then give the building a final inspection. If they find that the structure conforms with the contract documents, the owner accepts the project and gives the general contractor final payment on issuance by the building department of a certificate of occupancy, which indicates that the completed building meets building-code requirements.传统的施工程序众所周知，在传统的施工程序中进行施工的承包商。尽管他们想满足业主和建筑设计师的要求，但是最终还是以赚取利润为主要目标的。因此，他们最初的任务是对编写投标价格的建筑成本进行准确的估计。这就需要进行前期调查的工作并且做出施工时间表。等合约批出后，施工方必须提供所有材料并支付其费用，设备，电力，劳动力。业主此时需要进行必要的监督。一个总承包商承担一个建筑整体的责任。从事分包的承建商则需承担建造工程所需的各个工作。例如，管道承包商安装水管，电业承办商安装电气系统，电梯则由电梯承包商安装。他们与总承包商签订合同，费用由总承包商支付。有时候，除了一个总承包商，还有各种专业承包商，如电气和机械承包商，执行工作时需要与业主签订合同。这种承包商被称为间接承包商。他们的工作，由总承包商协调，但它们都是由业主直接联系。还有些时候，业主可以使用设计建造方法同时兼有设计和建筑施工单位的职能。这些单位被称为设计建造承包商。这方面的一个类型的合同聘用的变化是由一户住宅或低层住宅建筑群的开发。在房屋建筑设计和建造的住房，但设计之前需要由购买房屋的业主完成。施工过程管理往往是困难的。因此，一些业主会去寻求专家的协助，这些专家被称为专业施工经理，他们具有丰富的施工经验。施工经理与总承包商进行谈判，并选择其中一个项目。施工经理通常还监督分包商。在施工期间，它们有助于控制成本，加快运送设备和材料，并保持工作的进度。在依法行政，协助设计和建设的情况下，业主可以选择从事建筑项目经理。建筑承包商雇用的劳动力，一般有大工和小工。大工再建筑工程中从事技术活，如木工，管道工，工会成员和电工工会，小工则执行了分配给他们的工作。在施工期间，一切工作都要验收。因此，业主通过建筑师和监理经常进行督查。可能是名为工程员，建筑师或驻地工程师。作为业主的代表实地视察。核查人员必须确保工程符合合同文件的要求，并在安全的条件下进行的责任。这种检查可作出重复。此外，验收还是需要一个或多个政府机构的代表。他们必须确保工程符合法律要求，并负责检查与合同文件是否一致。这种视察一般定期或在某些阶段施工结束以后进行。地方或国家建设部门具有管辖权。这些检查的目的是确保符合当地或国家的建筑规范。以下是传统多层建筑施工的基本程序。建造开始后合同授予开发商，业主可要求开发商开始施工之前签约给或之后签约发出书面通知的同时另一部分工作继续进行。紧接着施工方根据需要获取建筑许可证，例如当地的建设，供水，污水处理，政府机构和公路部门。总承包商的计划和进度详细施工作业以及动员项目设备和人员。分包商得到通知后，做出签订合同的意向或授予分包合同书，然后给出在适当的时候进行通知。在施工前启动，总承包商要进行的一项调查就是邻近结构和地形，这些都要记录在案，并要熟悉当地情况。这项调查结束以后，随即进行布局建设。承建商的现场办事处都建在施工现场或附近。为了安全起见，必须从脚手架上移除的东西，产生的碎片都要运走。下一步，该网架是为建设工程准备的。这项工作为地下室开挖和基础开挖的深度，以及公用事业管道转移找到正确的标高。深挖掘，土方支撑，底部排出。建筑开始于基础上，然后是承重墙和结构框架的施工。梯子，楼梯，或电梯的安装，可让施工人员往返于各个楼层。此外，可安装卷扬机来运送材料。由于建筑高度的上升，管道，电力管道和线路安装以及永久地板，外墙，窗户和构造的影响。在适当的时候，永久的电梯安装。再需要的情况下可以安装防火卷帘。其次，屋顶等地方也需要安装。精加工工序安装有包括以下内容：天花板，瓷砖，墙板，墙壁镶板，水管装置，加热炉，空气调节设备，加热和冷却室装置;自动扶梯;地板，窗户玻璃;活动板，门;电气设备和仪器，包括照明灯具，开关，变压器，控制器，遵照项目的图纸和规格。外地办事处，围栏，桥梁和其他临时建筑，公共设备，如天然气，电力管道，水管，都连接到建筑上。最后，是建筑物内部的打扫和清洗。业主的代表，会给建设工程作最后检查。如果他们满意并认为符合合同文件，那么业主接受该项目，并交给总承包商的一个占用证书，这表明，总承包商已完成建设，建设部门再根据建筑规范的要求发放最后付款。请采纳。
Research on the construction safety management of Civil EngineeringIn recent years, the construction accident in civil engineering in our country often occur. This not only caused casualties, also caused great loss of national property, and resulting in a very bad social influence. Therefore, in our country, the construction units in the civil engineering construction projects, shouldstrengthen the construction safety management, all aspects ofsecurity control for engineering, to prevent dangerous accidentsin the end it all. The cause of the civil engineering constructionaccidents are in many aspects. In order to enhance security,should be combined with the characteristics of construction projects and the enterprise's internal and external conditions, the rational allocation of production factors, optimization of management process. In order to realize the construction safetymanagement, construction units should establish a safety management system of a project, it should be carried out from the following aspects:A construction safety consciousness, cultivate the modern safety science theory, occurrence of unsafe human behavior causedcasualties. To implement safety management, it should becombined with psychology, behavioral science to strengthen the education and training of employees in production safety,improve the consciousness of safe production, so as to guide the safety production behavior of employees. For the construction enterprises should strengthen safety awareness and educationproject personnel, developing the regular safety education to the construction personnel involved in the project, and to carry outsecurity work. Three level education to the new participate in the work of the operating personnel; often transform types of employees, should be safety training for new types of work, makeoperation personnel matters needing attention can be familiar with the safe operation of the. In order to make safe productionconsciousness win support among the people, enterprisemanagement personnel but also in engineering project, using a variety of promotional tools to start a variety of education,cultivate the construction personnel safety consciousness. Andin the management of enterprises, the production safety systemthought to. Leaders at all levels and enterprises in issuing the project production task, should also carry out safety productionmeasures. Such as the production safety requirements to the construction personnel, so conducive to safe thought into the production of management, let each employee has consciously in the psychological sense of , the establishment of management system for safety in production in addition to strengthen production safety education and awareness of construction project staff, should alsoestablish a safety management system, protect the system from the construction enterprise safety in production of. In order toavoid the frequent occurrence of sudden accident, the construction enterprise should according to the project, to develop a comprehensive, the system of safety management,and invest the necessary manpower and funds to ensure the implementation of the project. Ensure the production safetyconstruction from the system implementation, the project section of construction enterprises should establish the safety inspectionsystem, and regularly to the project construction of the security check. Make a clear record of project construction process,record the dangerous post, and regularly check the work. Self evaluation and construction team every week to organize asafety activities, the project department to make regular safetyevaluation for project production. Construction enterprises in theconstruction of civil engineering, in order to establish a safety management system, need to make corresponding technical measures for safety management system, a comprehensivescientific standard for , the safety work of construction enterprise project technical measures should be prior to commencement of for engineering and technical measures should be strict examination and approval, the approval before implementation. If the design changes during construction, corresponding safety technical measures should be coordinated with the adjustment,will follow. The safety technical measures enacted personnel andparticipation, should fully understand the project as the construction scheme, construction environment, the actualoperation has, and combined with relevant laws and regulations or the security policy to establish safety technical measures,which can ensure the safety measures. In civil engineering construction of large, corresponding safety technical measuresshould be formulated more comprehensive and more specific,must be carried out through the whole process of construction,and mainly covers to other engineering safety. To establish the system of safety management, construction enterprises should also be strict safety before the construction of the project, technical personnel should to the technical measures for the construction personnelwork. Such as technical personnel issue written materials relatedto the construction personnel, and the implementation of safety technical measures of construction workers to regularly check;when technicians found construction personnel in violation oftechnical measure behavior, to give timely corrected. When theconstruction personnel technical mistakes when amended and supplemented immediately. In order to ensure the safety ofconstruction enterprises to implement, should take theseinspection of production safety measures the formation of rules and regulations, require employees to strictly abide by, so to ensure safety production system. At the same time, the construction enterprises can also follow the specific constructiondevelopment situation, formulate a set of safety technical measures linked to reward and punishment system, to strictly abide by the department or individual production safety, strictsecurity checks to reward, and if there are penalties for violations of the phenomenon. At the same time should have a goodproduction safety supervision work, and sent to the specialized production safety supervision work. When there is potential safety hazard factors in project development, should be timely analysis and inspection and make treatment immediately, so thatthe safety management to implement, implement the specificsystem, ensure the feasibility of production safety. The range ofcivil engineering projects involved in the construction processmore widely, because the factors which affect the engineering safety more. But in the construction process, the occurrence of safety accidents is often unexpected, with occasional andunexpected strong. These come unexpectedly accidents, serious damage often caused casualties and , strengthen the safety production and environment management in civil engineering construction process,environment is an important factor influencing the construction safety. So in order to guarantee safety in production, enterprises should be to strengthen the management of construction site. As in the construction site, the unnecessary equipment and surplus materials, should be timely treatment. In the pile construction materials in order to keep the construction site, the patency of the road accident, ensure to timely rescue, this is to protect the safety measures to realize. And construction enterprises shouldstrictly abide by the rules and regulations, which occurred on theconstruction site of the waste, garbage bag, cement, waste materials and other items should be clear, it can keep the siteclean, to create a civilized construction environment for safe construction. Create a safe production environment construction enterprises, should also be reflected in the risk disposal of equipment. For some such as the construction of electricity,dangerous equipment, cloth rod is used, should by the competent department of enterprise safety approval approval,the approval before they can be put into use after. And in the process of construction of civil engineering, a comprehensive analysis of the conditions of construction project. Some of the effects of environmental factors of the quality of construction, totake timely measures, and to conduct a comprehensivespecification, so that can realize the safe construction quality engineering to create good conditions.
土木工程的key哀，速度，
If You Build It …People say the government should be run more like a business. So imagine yourself as CEO. Your bridges are crumbling. Your air-traffic control system doesn’t use GPS. The Society of Civil Engineers gave your infrastructure a D and estimated that you need to make more than $2 trillion in repairs and upgrades. Sorry, chief. No one said being CEO was easy. But there’s good news, too. Because of the recession, construction materials are cheap. So is labor. And your borrowing costs? They’ve never been lower. That means a dollar of investment today will go much further than it would have five years ago—or than it’s likely to go five years from now. So what do you do? If you’re thinking like a CEO, the answer is easy: you ’s what the administration is proposing to do. But their plan is too modest. The $50 billion bump in infrastructure spending it outlined is only for surface transportation. And as for our water systems, schools, and levees? This is not a time for half measures. It’s a rare opportunity to do what we need to do—and save money doing 2009, Congress passed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act—the stimulus. Billions went to the Transportation Department to improve our roads, rails, and runways. That money was, in turn, given to the states, which drew up lists of what they needed to do and how much it would the Feds checked in on the funds, what they found shocked them. The projects were coming in at about 20 percent less than estimated. The Transportation Department looked at the share that went to the Federal Aviation Administration for runway repairs. The money the FAA thought would complete 300 projects was going to finish 367. The stimulus, the Feds realized, had blundered into an incredible deal: the recession was driven by the collapse of the construction sector. People who built things were now out of work. The materials used for building things were now on fire sale. The companies that organized the building of things were suddenly desperate for jobs. As a result, building things was suddenly dirt it still is. Unemployment in the construction sector is at 17 percent—and that doesn’t even count the construction workers who’ve given up looking for jobs. “There’s work that needs to be done,” Larry Summers, outgoing chairman of the National Economic Council, told me. “There are people there to do it. It seems a crime for the two not to be brought together.”As for debt, delaying a dollar of needed repairs is no different from racking up a dollar the government owes. “You run a deficit both when you borrow money and when you defer maintenance,” Summers says. “Either way, you’re imposing a cost on future generations.” Plus, if America has to borrow money, now is the time. The interest rate on 10-year Treasuries is less than 3 percent—the lowest it has been since the 1950s. So a dollar of debt is cheap, and a dollar of infrastructure investment goes ’ll have to pay down that debt, of course. But part of paying down the debt is increasing economic growth. What worries the market is the size of our debt against the size of our GDP. If our economy grows faster than our debt, then our debt, in the eyes of the market, gets smaller. But if our economy is going to grow that fast, we’ll need an infrastructure able to support that kind of growth. Tomorrow’s energy contracts won’t be won by the country with yesterday’s energy problem is that the process by which we choose infrastructure projects is embarrassing. About 10 percent of infrastructure spending comes from earmarks. Most of the rest depends on a formula in which the government just hands money to the states. There’s no requirement for cost-benefit analysis. The decisions are horribly politicized. If taxpayers are making a huge investment in our nation’s infrastructure, then we’re owed an assurance that policymakers are choosing the best projects. That suggests a grand compromise in which more infrastructure money is tied to reforms ensuring a better process for spending that has never been a better moment for America to rebuild. An unlikely and unwelcome array of forces has converged to match our needs and the economy’s bargains almost perfectly. The only question is if we’ll run our government like a business, alert to good opportunities, or if we’ll run it as we have been, squabbling among ourselves while things get about it, chief?肯定有3000了
工程造价毕业论文英文文献
转自百度道友：《2. Engelhardt,Gary V.“House Price and Home Owner Saving Behavior”. Regional Science and Urban Economics,26,. 3. Engelhardt,Gary V.“House Price and The Decision to Save for Down Payments.” Journal of Urban Economics,36,. 4. Karl E. Case ，John M. Quigley， Robert J. Shiller. “Comparing Wealth Effects: The Stock Market versus The Housing Market”. University of California，Berkeley. 2003, SepTEMber, . 5. Levin,Laurence.“Are Assets Fungible? Testing the Behavioral Theory of Life-Cycle Savings”.Journal of Economic Organization and Ehavior, 36,. 6. Milton. Friedman.“ A Theory of The Consumption Function. Princeton University Press, PrinCETon”.1957. 7. Nikola,Dvornak and Marion Kohler.“Housing Wealth ,Stock Market Wealth and Consumption : A Panel Analysis for Australia”.Reserch Discussion Paper ,。 8. Starr-McCluer,Martha.“The Stock Market Wealth and Consumer Spending”.Mimeo, Federal Reserve Board of Governors,1999. 9. Skinner, Jonathan.“Housing Wealth and AgGREgate Saving”.Regional Science and Urban Economics,19,. 10. Yoshikawa,Hiroshi and Fumio Ohtake.“Female Labor Supply,Housing Demand ,and The Saving Rate in Japan”.European Economic Review,33,.”》
一看就是毕业论文~！！！！Engineering cost management Project cost control emphasis should be transferred to the project construction early days, is transferred to the project decision and design stage. Project cost control in construction projects throughout the entire process, the key lies in the pre construction investment decision-making with design phase, whereas in the investment decision is made, the key lies in designing. According to expert analysis: architectural design, in the preliminary design stage, design stage, construction design stage to the engineering effect were 75% ~ 95%, 35% ~ 75%, 5% ~ 35%; while in the construction phase, through the optimization of construction organization design, construction cost saving the possibility of only 5% to 10%. We should put the focus shifted to the design stage, in order to get twice the result with half the effort. Pay attention to the technical and economic optimization combination. The combination of technology with economy is most effective way to control engineering cost. China engineering fields for a long time did not do this. The lack of technical personnel economy idea, design thought is conservative, the design of the outcome of the economy are not fully reflect. Therefore, we should solve the problem is to improve economic efficiency as the goal, in the construction process, organization, technology and economy organic ground union rises. Through the economic analysis, comparative study and effect evaluation, correct processing of advanced technology and reasonable in economy between the relation of unity of opposites, strive to advanced technology under the conditions of economic rational, reasonable in economy based on advanced technology. Carry out "limitation is designed" method. To be consciously put the application of value engineering to the specific design, actively promote quota design in engineering design contract, by way of bidding. This has been proven in practice is an effective way, it is not only an economic problem, more precisely a technical and economic problems. This "limitation is designed" to effectively control the project cost. In order to make the "limitation is designed" to achieve the desired objectives, should be involved in the design personnel must be experienced skilled economic designer. Their design results must be practical, advanced and reasonable cost. Control of engineering cost on the other hand is the need for comparison, because the outcome is a process of gradual improvement, and not to decide, so the comparison is a measure of its practical, advanced and economical means. Do good project cost control in the process. ( 1) compilation of economic and feasible construction scheme. Before construction, construction enterprises should be combined with the construction drawings and the actual situation at the scene, their mechanical equipment, construction experience, the management level and technical specification acceptance criteria, a set of practical and feasible construction scheme. The construction scheme is engineering implementation of the programme of action. ( 2) to technical personnel, materials, machinery and personnel staff communication and coordination. In the process of construction, construction technology, materials and mechanical personnel should cooperate closely, understand each other, to management as the core, to reduce costs for the purpose of. ( 3) to the project completion settlement. Strict supervision system. Control project cost effectively, in the early phase of the project shall be subject to supervision (including cost management ) system. Through analyzing the design process of supervision, make the design more reasonable, cost control to limit the scope of, accomplish truly with the smallest investment maximize output. Strict supervision system. Control project cost effectively, in the early phase of the project shall be subject to supervision (including cost management ) system. Through analyzing the design process of supervision, make the design more reasonable, cost control to limit the scope of, accomplish truly with the smallest investment maximize output. To establish and perfect the independent project cost advisory body, cultivate a Zhi De have both engineering team. To establish a real sense of independent engineering cost consulting agencies. Through improving the laws and regulations, normative behavior, separate government functions from enterprise management, the establishment of independent business partnership, share-holding system, the limited responsibility system and other forms of organization, an industry-based, diversified services integrated project consulting company, build and development and reform the engineering cost intermediary service institutions, make construction project management of a gradual transition by an independent specialized agency in charge of project cost whole process tracking management, truly between owner and contractor plays an intermediary role. To strengthen engineering cost consulting industry association construction, establish project cost consulting industry self-discipline mechanism, and constantly improve the Engineering Cost Association in engineering cost consulting industry status, to be truly representative of the interests of the majority of the industry practitioners, government and enterprises to become connection link and the bridge. At the same time to strengthen the project cost specialty in higher education and in service education. As a result of project cost management in construction projects and various economic interests are closely related, and the whole social economic activities play a very important role, it requires the cost engineering technical personnel should have different levels of knowledge, in addition to their professional knowledge and have a deep understanding, also deal with the design content, design process, construction technology, project management, economic laws and regulations have a comprehensive understanding of. Therefore, the project cost management, project cost per unit of society groups, has already obtained a cost engineer qualification personnel, in order to carry out plan, has the goal, multiple levels of continuing education and training, to understand and master Chinese bilateral agreements with countries project cost technology, regulations, management system and its development trend, to expand domestic and foreign exchanges, and actively participate in international or regional engineering activities, improve their professional quality, so that the current practitioners in intelligent structure, theory and working experience three aspects can meet the needs of engineering cost management. Cost engineering professionals need to strengthen their own learning, in addition to the professional knowledge to upgrade, should also work in combination with a broad understanding and master the relevant engineering and technical expertise, educational organizations and industry regulatory bodies constitute a complete education system, so as to the field of engineering senior talent development to create good conditions.
